1. Locate and describe the major river systems and discuss the physical settings that supported permanent settlement and early civilizations.

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia flowed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf and provided the Fertile Crescent with rich soil for farming. The rivers depended on the amount of rain that fell in the northern plateaus of the Taurus Mountains and the eastern Zagros Mountains. The flat plains in southern and eastern Mesopotamia provided the perfect flat land needed for effective farming. The annual flooding from the rivers brought silt to the land, which provided ideal conditions for farming.

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2. Trace the development of agricultural techniques that permitted the production of economic surplus and the emergence of cities as centers of culture and power.

Mesopotamians began their agricultural endeavors by using technologies such as pottery to haul water from the Tigris and Euphrates to tend to their crops. Overtime they began to understand how to control water by building irrigation systems. Because the area received little rain the ability to control water enabled them to store water surplus if the Tigris or Euphrates rivers flooded, and use water from their storage basins in time of drought.

Mesopotamians were able to maintain a stable food supply as a result of creating a complex irrigation system. The citizens in Mesopotamia were able to engage in activities other than farming because they were able to maintain a stable food supply. Some people became religious leaders; others participated in building a government and forming laws; while others engaged in other activities such as art, education, trade, and architecture. Overtime, new towns and settlements sprang up all of various sizes and complexities.

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3. Understand the relationship between religion and the social and political order in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Religion played a major role in public and private life in Mesopotamian cities, such as Sumer. Each city-state in Sumer had its own god, which was believed to have tremendous power. The gods could bring or destroy harvests, illness, and wealth. Sumerians believed they had to please the gods in order be successful so they relied on local priests to interpret the wish of the gods.

Because people relied on priests to interpret the wishes of the gods, priests were revered by the citizens. The people believed the priests and kings were chosen by the gods themselves and, as a result, the priests and kings yielded great political power.

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4. Know the significance of Hammurabi's Code.

Hammurabi's Code is significant because it was the first code of laws written down for all to see. These two hundred and eighty-two laws and their consequences were carved into stone and placed in the town square so everyone, commoner to king, knew what was expected. These laws were very thorough; addressing topics such as trade, loans, theft, marriage, injury, and murder.

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9. Trace the evolution of language and its written forms.

Cuneiform, the world's first known writing system, developed from picture-symbols known as pictographs. Pictographs represented objects such as grain or fish, whereas cuneiform symbols could also represent syllables. As a result, Sumerian writers could combine symbols to express non-concrete ideas such as "happiness" and "anger." Mesopotamians "wrote" using a stylus by carving wedge shaped symbols into soft clay.

The earliest know examples of Egyptian writing are from around 3300 BC and are called hieroglyphics. Each hieroglyph symbol represented one or more sounds in the Egyptian language. Egyptians first wrote by carving hieroglyphics into stone or other hard materials. Later they wrote using brushes and ink on papyrus, paper like material made from reeds.

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